The Law

~2800 BCE · FMB 27 — Bodmer Museum, Cologny, Switzerland

“PA~a GU4(?) 4(N14) — NESAG~a, KI~a, EN~a, NAM2, KAB, GAR 5(N14) — GAN2, AB~a, X, EN~a(?) 3(N14) — X, AD~c(?) 3(N14) — KA~a, DU6~a 2(N50) 7(N14)(?) — GAN2, |SILA3~a×DUG~a| [X] — IB~a, MASZ, URUDU~a [X] — TUM3, DUB~b [X] — MUSZ3~a, X 2(N14) — GISZ×SZU2~a, X [...] 2(N14) — BU~a# [...] 2(N14) — X, BU~a# [...] 4(N14) — GAL~a, X, SZUBUR(?) [...]”

Source: engine:claude-sonnet-4-6 (2026-05-28/v6-glossary-aware)

~2270 BCE · MM 0440 — Montserrat Museum, Barcelona, Spain

“Wood(en) ... not ... [...] Wooden [object], [its] face/front, [sign uncertain], ... not (At the) foot / path of the city The path(?) of Utu is made just [...] ...-[broken] A man [...] path(?) [...] to measure [...] vessel(?) Toward its throne dais(?) A man who does not return (what he owes to) a man A man who does not add (what is due) to a man [...] Wood(en) [...] ... [...] Wood(en?) binding [...] The term of office passes ... [...] [...] for its destiny, a judgment is rendered Alas — it was brought out [...]”

Source: engine:claude-sonnet-4-6 (2026-05-28/v6-glossary-aware)

~2100 BCE · Istanbul Archaeological Museums

“If a man has cut off another man's foot — he shall pay ten shekels of silver.”

Source: Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor

The oldest surviving law code in human history. The principle that the state — not the wronged family — defines and enforces justice begins here.

~1754 BCE · Louvre, Paris

“If a man has destroyed the eye of another man — they shall destroy his eye.”

Source: Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor

Not the first law code, but the most complete and the most famous. Inscribed on a black diorite stele over two meters tall, displayed in a public place — law made visible, law made monumental.

~1340 BCE · The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

“To the king, my lord, my god, my Sun-god, thus speaks Abi-milku, your servant, the dust at your feet: I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, seven times and seven times …”

Source: Moran, The Amarna Letters (1992)

Part of the earliest known body of international diplomatic correspondence. Akkadian, written in cuneiform on clay, was the lingua franca of Late Bronze Age statecraft — used between Egypt, the Hittites, Mitanni, Babylon, Assyria, and the Levantine vassals.

~1300 BCE · Reconstructed composite — see ORACC entry for manuscript witnesses

“(1) Tukultī-Ninurta (I), king of the world, strong king, king of Assyria, king of the four quarters (of the world), sun(god) of all of the people, exalted priest, chosen of (the god) Aššur and Enlil, attentive ruler, creature of the gods Anu and Ea, the capable, the ferocious, loved one of the gods Šamaš and Adad, valiant dragon, favourite of the gods Marduk and Zababa, exceeding in strength, the strong one whose support is the god Ninurta — the hero of weapons — loved one of the divine power (manifest in) the goddess Ištar’s banquet, true shepherd, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the Upper…”

Source: Royal Inscriptions of Assyria online (RIAo), Munich Open-access Cuneiform Corpus Initiative (MOCCI), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; in association with the RINAP Project, University of Pennsylvania. https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/riao/Q009242/

~655 BCE · Reconstructed composite — see ORACC entry for manuscript witnesses

“Lawsuit of Aššur-šallim against Ṣalmu-aḫḫē concerning Šulmu-ēreš, his (Aššur-šallim's) slave, which they argued — (this case) was brought before Šēp-šarri, the sartinnu (chief judge). The sartinnu imposed (a penalty of) 1 1/2 minas of silver. Ṣalmu-aḫḫē gave 1 mina of silver to Aššur-šallim. Whoever among them breaches the peace (settlement) between them shall pay 10 minas of silver to Aššur (and) Šamaš, lord(s) of his lawsuit — to Aššur, the lord of his lawsuit. Month of Tammuz (IV), eponym year of Aššur-šuma-uṣur (?). Witness Libbūsu. Witness Nabû-aḫu-aḫu. Witness Išdi-Nabû (or) La-qēpu…”

Source: engine:claude-sonnet-5 (2026-05-28/v6-glossary-aware)

~430 BCE · RMC 067 — Rare Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, Ithaca, New York, USA

“3 shekels (minus) a quarter, deficient, of silver — from Tātê-bīt-ibni, the field of Talīmu is at his charge. Arad-ia, the field of Mudu, in the month of Simanu — the silver, the silver: 3 shekels (minus) a quarter, deficient. In the city of Gādibê he shall pay. Witnesses: Tabnê-a, the field of Enlil-bāni; Mašê, the field of Šamaš-zēr-ibni; Šamaš-rēsūsu, the field of Balāṭu and the temple administrator (šangû). Rīmūt-Mašê, the field of Ḫamšâ-tātê-bīt-ibni. City of Gādibê. Month of Addaru, the 29th day. Year 7 of Cambyses, king of Babylon, [king] of the lands.”

Source: engine:claude-sonnet-4-6 (2026-05-18/v5-modern-rendering)